Tradition and Transformation: San Ildefonso Pueblo Pottery and Painting, 1850s–1970s

In the shadow of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, San Ildefonso Pueblo remained largely isolated from the American mainstream through much of the 19th century. In this setting, pottery served a primarily utilitarian and ceremonial role, deeply embedded in the daily lives and spiritual traditions of the Tewa-speaking people. But by the end of the 1800s, this small village began a transformation that would eventually place it at the center of a Native American artistic renaissance.

In the 1880s, James Stevenson of the Smithsonian Institution visited San Ildefonso on a collecting mission and acquired around 100 pottery pieces. Though the pueblo was still off the beaten tourist path, Stevenson’s visit marked a turning point: a recognition that Native art had value beyond its local function. In the years that followed, potters likely created more vessels both to replenish household needs and to prepare for future collectors. This moment foreshadowed the shift from pottery as survival to pottery as expression and commerce.

At that time, the predominant style was Powhoge Polychrome; a black-on-cream ware with red accents limited to rim tops and lower bands. This style, distinguished by its stone-polished cream slip and minimal red, gave way by 1900 to what is now known as San Ildefonso Polychrome. The newer style expanded the use of red pigment in the design field and revived earlier olla vessel shapes. The transition from red to black rim paint signaled a change in aesthetic values.

Around 1900, Martina Vigil and Florentino Montoya introduced a breakthrough in technique. Drawing from Cochiti Pueblo practices, they used a rag-wiped cream slip instead of labor-intensive stone polishing. This innovation altered the texture of the pottery and made production more efficient and accessible for other artisans in the pueblo.

It was the collaboration of Maria and Julian Martinez in the 1910s and 1920s, however, that radically redefined San Ildefonso pottery. Their pioneering work in Black-on-black pottery, where matte black designs were painted on a polished black surface, captivated collectors and institutions. This style became synonymous with San Ildefonso and helped establish Pueblo pottery as a fine art form, bridging ancient traditions with the modern art world.

Innovation continued into the mid-20th century. In the 1960s and 70s, Tony Da, Maria’s grandson, brought modernism to the medium with sgraffito carving and turquoise inlays, elevating the art to new levels of refinement. Rose Gonzales developed deeply carved blackware, creating dramatic visual contrasts, while Santana and Adam Martinez continued to produce exceptional Black-on-black pottery with subtle refinements in form and finish for a growing collector base.

As tourism surged in the Southwest, fueled by railroad access and romanticized images of Native cultures, economic opportunities expanded. However, artists also faced the challenge of maintaining cultural integrity while appealing to outside markets. Boarding schools, assimilation policies, and the spread of Anglo-American society all worked to suppress Native languages and practices. In response, San Ildefonso potters used their work as a form of resilience and cultural affirmation.

By the 1960s, a renewed interest in polychrome ware emerged. Blue Corn and her husband Sandy led a revival of 19th-century San Ildefonso Polychrome pottery. Rejecting the rag-wiped method, Blue Corn returned to stone polishing, producing vessels with highly burnished cream surfaces and carefully rendered matte designs. Her work inspired artists like Carmelita Dunlap and her descendants to reconnect with earlier traditions.

The development of San Ildefonso pottery from the late 1800s to the 1970s tells a story of continuity and reinvention. Through generations, artists honored ancestral knowledge while embracing innovation. From everyday use to celebrated art, from isolation to international recognition, their pottery stands as a lasting expression of culture, identity, and artistry.